GENERAL

7: EVOLUTION OF FORMATION FLYING

The development of aerial fighting has shown that certain fundamental maxims which govern fighting on land and sea are equally applicable in the air. Among these are concentration, and mutual co-operation and support. The adoption of formation flying has followed as an inevitable result.

Any mission which has fighting for its object, or for the accomplishment of which fighting may normally be expected, must usually, therefore, be carried out by a number off machines the number depending on the amount of opposition likely to be encountered and on a third fundamental axiom, namely, that no individual should have more than a limited number of units under his immediate control.

The evolution of formation flying has been gradual. When aerial fighting became general it was soon discovered that two machines when working together had a better chance of bringing a combat to a decisive conclusion than had a single machine. The next step was for two or more pairs to work together and this quickly became the accepted practice.

The chief difficulty is control of the remaining machines by the leader, primarily due to the difficulty of communication in the air. For practical purposes this limits the number of machines that can be controlled by one man to six, and even when wireless telephony between machines is perfected this number is unlikely to be exceeded. The principles and causes which have led to formation flying remain in force, however, and are bound to result in a further development in the case of offensive fighting, namely, two or more formations working in close co-operation with each other and the best means of achieving such co-operation is the next problem to be solved in aerial warfare.

When a force on the ground is engaged in offensive action the troops comprising the main body must be protected from surprise from the front, flanks and rear. Hence the universal employment in open warfare of advanced flank and rear guards. In the air the third dimension renders flank and rear guard unnecessary, their place being taken by the 'Above Guard', which can perform the duties of both. Whether we consider a single formation, therefore, or a group of formations acting in close co-operation, an 'Above Guard' is necessary and may consist of two or more machines in the first case or one of the formations in the second. These should fly slightly above the main body either directly behind or echelon to the flank. The main body carries out the offensive fighting, the 'Above Guard' remaining intact above them to protect them from surprise.

8: SOME PRINCIPLES OF FORMATION FLYING

The formations adopted vary in accordance with the mission and with the type of machine. Certain principles are however, common to all formation flying and must be strictly observed.

As on the ground so in the air the bed-rock of successful co-operation is drill, and good aerial drill is an essential preliminary to success in formation flying for any purpose. Before commencing drill in the air it has been found of great assistance to practice on the ground until all concerned are thoroughly conversant with the various evolutions. Simplicity is essential and complicated manoeuvres are bound to fail in action. Drill should commence in flight formation, each Flight Commander instructing and leading his own flight. Subsequently the Squadron Commander should lead and drill his whole squadron in three flights, each under its Flight Commander. A really well-drilled flight can manoeuvre in the air with as little as a span and a half between wing tips, but in action it is better to keep a distance of 80 to a 100 feet, otherwise pilots are apt to devote too much of their attention to avoiding each other.

One of the first essentials of successful formation flying is that every pilot thoroughly understands the use of his throttle. He will have to use it constantly throughout the flight and must train himself to do so instinctively. The throttle must be used to keep station. If a pilot attempts to do so by sharp turns instead of by using the throttle he will inevitably throw the formation into disorder.

The formation adopted must admit of quick and easy manoeuvre by the formation as a whole.

A leader must be appointed, and a sub-leader, in case the leader has to leave the formation for any reason, e.g. engine trouble. The machines of leaders and sub-leaders must be clearly marked. Streamers attached to different parts of the machines are suitable. Good formation flying depends very largely on the leader, who must realise that his responsibilities do not end with placing himself in front for others to follow. Their ability to do so depends very largely on himself and on constant practice together so that they know intuitively what he will do in any given circumstances.

An air rendezvous must be appointed, and the leader must see pilots and observers before leaving the ground and explain his intentions to them. To save waste of time in picking up formation in the air and to ensure a really close formation, machines must leave the ground together or as nearly so as possible and in approximate formation. When all machines have reached the rendezvous, the leader fires a signal light, indicating that formation is to be picked up at once. He should then fly straight for a short time, as slowly as possible, while his observer, if he has one, reports on the formation. If one or more machines are rather far behind, the leader should turn to the right or left, after he or his observer has given a signal that he is going to do so. Thus the machine behind will be enabled to cut a corner and close up.

When the leader is satisfied with the formation he fires a light signifying that he is ready to start. The actual signal to start can be given either by the leader or from the ground; in the lattercase the officer on the ground, who is responsible for the despatch of the formation, will also be responsible for deciding when the proper formation has been adopted. The decision as to the suitability or otherwise of the weather conditions will in any case rest with the leader of the formation. A suitable code of signals for formation flying is given in Appendix A. Signal lights must be fired upwards by the leader, otherwise machines in the rear may have difficulty in seeing them.

Pilots must clearly understand how the formation is to reform after a fight. Once an attack has been launched, it must tend to become a series of individual combats, but if a formation is able to rally at the first lull and make a second concerted attack, it should gain a real advantage over a dispersed enemy formation. Definite instructions by the leader on the point are essential. A rendezvous over a prearranged spot has been found suitable, in the case of a small area. In the case of a large area two or more spots may be designated previously, the rendezvous to take place over the nearest machine. If there is a choice he will join two machines in preference to a single machine and three machines in preference to two. This applies to the leader also. To rendezvous successfully after a fight needs continual practice.

Formations must not open out under anti-aircraft gun fire. It has been found by experience that fire is usually less effective against a well closed up group machines than when directed on a single machine. To open out is to give the enemy the chance, for which he is waiting, of attacking the machines of the formation singly. the enemy's aim can be thrown out temporarily, if the fire is very hot, by turning sharply, diving or climbing, but it is seldom advisable to lose height, especially when far over the enemy's lines.

The formation should retained until the aerodrome is reached on the return journey.

9: USE OF FORMATION FLYING

Flying in formation is necessary in the case of:

(i) Offensive patrols
(ii) Bomb raids
...and is the normal method of carrying out these duties.

Medium and long distance reconnaissance's may also have to be carried out in formation, but a fast machine capable of flying at a great altitude can often carry out such reconnaissance's by itself, including photography when large-scale photographs are not required. A further development of formation flying is in the attack of ground targets with machine-gun fire (see paragraph 15).

10: OFFENSIVE PATROLS

The sole duty of offensive patrols is to drive down and destroy hostile aeroplanes, and they should not be given other missions to perform, such as reconnaissance, which will restrict their fighting activities. In the face of opposition of any strength offensive patrols usually have to fly in formation in order to obtain the advantage of mutual support but the formations adopted can be governed solely by the requirements of offensive fighting. Single-seater scouts or even two seaters, if superior in speed and climb to the great majority of the enemy's machines, may be able to patrol very successfully alone or in pairs, taking advantage of their power of manoeuvre and acting largely by surprise, but in the case of machines which do not enjoy any marked superiority formation flying is essential.

Fighting in the air, however, even when many machines are involved on each side, tends to resolve itself into a number of independent combats, and it has been found advisable to organize a purely fighting formation accordingly. Such a formation can suitably consist of six machines, organized in groups of two or three machines each, every group having its own sub-leader, the senior of whom takes command of the formation. A deputy leader should also be designated, in case the leader falls out for any reason. As far as possible the groups should be permanent organizations, in order that the pilots may acquire knowledge of each other's tactics and methods which is essential for successful fighting. It must be impressed on pilots that the group is the fighting unit and not the individual (see paragraph 17).

11: RECONNAISSANCE AND BOMB RAIDS

In reconnaissance the whole object is to protect the reconnaissance machine or machines,and enable them to complete their work. Opposition will usually take one of two forms. The enemy's scouts may employ guerrilla tactics, hanging on the flanks and rear of the formation, ready to cut off stragglers, or attacking from several directions simultaneously; or else the formation may be attacked by a hostile formation. The modern type of two seater fighter reconnaissance machine is able to deal with either class or opposition without assistance. The machines must fly in close formation, keep off enemy scouts which employ guerrilla tactics by long range fire, and be ready to attack a hostile formation if the enemy's opposition takes that form.

By skilful manoeuvring it may be possible to bring a superior number of guns to bear on a portion of the enemy's formation than he can bring into action owing to the fire of some of his aeroplanes being masked by the machines in front of them.

Reconnaissance formation, like fighting formations can be organised in groups, each with its sub-leader, but as the object is to secure the safety of the reconnaissance machine the whole formation must keep together and act as one.

A suitable formation in the case of six two-seater machines has been found to be two lines of three, the flankers in the front line being slightly higher than the centre (reconnaissance) machine, and the three machines in rear slightly higher again. The intervals between the machines should not be more than 100 yards, and the distance of the rear rank from the front should be sufficient only to admit of a good view, being obtained of the leading machines.

The pace must be slow, otherwise the rear machines are bound to straggle. Machines must, therefore, fly throttled down. Sharp turns by the leader also lead to straggling; a signal, therefore, should always be given before turning and a minute or two allowed, if possible, after giving the signal before the turn is commenced, in order to give the machines on the outer flank time to gain ground.

The duty of bombing machines is to get to their objective and to drop their bombs on it, and only to fight in the execution of their duty. The secret of success is the most careful pre-arrangement, so that everyone knows exactly what he has to do. The bombing machines, like a reconnaissance, must keep in close formation. Any tendency to straggle or open out under anti-aircraft fire will give the enemy the opportunity he is seeking to attack and split up the formation. A well-kept formation, on the other hand, is seldom attacked at close range unless by very superior numbers. When bombing from a height the best results have been secured by dropping bombs while still in formation. Three machines drop their bombs simultaneously, the centre observer being responsible for the sighting, or, if preferred, all machines can drop their bombs simultaneously on a signal from the leader. If it is necessary for machines to break formation to drop their bombs, a rallying point must always be chosen beforehand where they will collect and resume flying formation as soon as their bombs have been released.

When a very large raid is contemplated, it will often be best to carry out the attack by two separate formations, since there is a limit to the number of machines which can be controlled efficiently by a single leader. Six bombing machines are normally the maximum. The departures of the two formations from their respective rendezvous, if they are to make a single raid, should be so arranged as to enable to them give one another mutual support in case of heavy hostile attack. The rendezvous should not be too close together, 10 to 15 miles apart is a suitable distance. Departures from the rendezvous should be timed so that the first formation is leaving the objective as the second approaches, and the leaders should watch each other's signals.

With modern machines an escort to a reconnaissance formation or bomb raid is seldom desirable, and far better results are obtained by sending one or more offensive patrols to work independently over the area where opposition to the reconnaissance or raid is most likely to be encountered. If an escort is provided, its primary duty is to enable the reconnaissance or raid to accomplish its mission and it should only fight in the execution of this duty. It is usually best to keep the escort and the machines it is protecting as distinct formations under a separate leader. The escort flies above the reconnaissance or bombing machines, in such a position as to obtain the best view of them and the greatest freedom of manoeuvre in any direction. Its role is:

(i) To break up an opposing formation.
(ii) To prevent the concentration of superior force on any part of the formation they are protecting.
(iii) To assist any machine which drops out of the formation through engine or other trouble.

While the bombs are being dropped, the escort should circle round above the bombing machines, protecting them from attack from above, and ready to dive on to any hostile machine that may interfere with them.

12: ATTACK OF GROUND TARGETS

Formation flying has lately been adopted for the attack of ground targets with excellent results, formations appearing to be no more vulnerable to rifle and machine-gun fire from the ground than is a single machine. This is probably due to a tendency to fire at the formation as a whole instead of picking out a particular machine. On the other hand, a formation, as against a single machine, possesses the following advantages:

(a) There is less chance of machines losing their way as there are several individuals instead of one only attempting to keep their bearings.
(b) A greater volume of fire is brought to bear on any target discovered.
(c) A formation is stronger if attacked.
(d) A formation may be expected to have greater moral effect on the enemy's troops.

Formation flying at low altitudes demands even more constant practice together than does formation flying at a height, because fire from the ground makes continuous changes of direction and height a necessity. A suitable height from which to attack ground targets is 600 to 800 feet. The essential pilot point is to go low enough to make certain of differentiating between our own and the enemy's troops. Above 800 feet this is difficult, and the chance of interference by hostile aircraft is greater, but these seldom come down to fight below 1,000 feet. Formations for low flying should never exceed six machines.

13: GENERAL FIGHTING TACTICS

Fighting tactics vary with the type of machine and with the powers and favourite methods of individual pilots. No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down, but the following hints based on the experience of others may be of use to the young pilot until he has acquired experience of his own. There are four golden rules which are applicable to all offensive fighting:

(a) Every attack must be made with determination and with but one object, the destruction of the opponent.
(b) Surprise must be employed whenever possible.
(c) If surprised or forced into an unfavourable position a pilot must never, under any circumstances , dive straight away from his opponent. To do so is to court disaster, since a diving machine is an almost stationary target. Moreover, the tactical advantage of height is lost by diving and the initiative surrendered to the hostile machine. The best course of action depends on the type of machine and is discussed below.
(d) Height invariably confers the tactical advantage.

14: SINGLE SEATER FIGHTING

Fighting in formation with single seaters is a most difficult operation and demands constant study and practice, the highest degree of skill on the part of the individual pilots, mutual confidence between them, and intimate knowledge of each other's methods.

The patrol leader's work consists more in paying attention to the main points affecting than in doing a large share of the fighting himself. These main points are:

(i) The arrival of more hostile machines, which have tactical advantage, i.e. height.
(ii) The danger of the patrol being carried by the wind beyond the range of its petrol supply.
(iii) The patrol getting below the bulk of the hostile formation.

As soon as any of these conditions occur it is usually better to break off the fight temporarily, and to rally and climb above the enemy before attacking them again.

When fighting in formations of two or more groups, the fighting unit should be the group, each selecting its own objective and acting as described below. The groups will often become separated, but every effort should be made to retain cohesion within the groups. The practice of individual pilots breaking away from the formation to attack hostile machines always leads to disaster sooner or later. If the enemy machines scatter, attention should be concentrated on those lagging behind, and, if they dive and are followed down, at least one group should remain at a height as a protection from surprise.

The dangerous quarter in the case of a formation of single seaters is the rear, and care must always be taken to keep a constant watch behind and above. If surprised in an unfavourable position it should be the invariable rule, if time permits, to turn and attack the adversary before he comes to close quarters. If, however, he succeeds in doing so, the best chance lies in a quick climbing turn. Any method which entails losing height such as a side-slip or a spin is bad, as the hostile machine has merely to follow and attack afresh from above.

Surprise by a formation is difficult, and success must be sought in close co-operation and boldness of attack. If the enemy is inferior in numbers an opportunity will occur for a concerted attack by a group against a single machine. If working in groups of three the actual attack should be carried out by two machines, the third remaining above to protect them from surprise. The two attacking machines may converge on the enemy from different directions on the same level, but the attacks must be simultaneous so that they cannot be engaged separately. Another method is to attack echelonned in height, the lower machine diving and attacking the enemy from behind, while the upper machine awaits an opportunity to swoop down on him when he turns to engage the machine that attacked first.

An attack of equal numbers will usually resolve itself into a series of individual duels. The leader must always ensure that his formation is well closed up before attacking, giving the rear machines time if necessary, so that all pilots can attack their adversaries simultaneously.

In attacking superior numbers the best chance of success lies in the destruction of the enemy's moral by excessive boldness.

Decoy tactics are sometimes successful. One group attempts to draw the enemy on to attack, while the other files high above it, ready to surprise the enemy should he seize the opportunity. Watch must be kept for similar tactics on the part of the enemy.

The group going down as a decoy must not be more than about 3,000 feet below the remainder or it will run the risk of being attacked from the flank by superior numbers before the groups above can get down to its assistance.

If, owing to being cut off from his formation and being attacked by a superior number of machines, a pilot is forced down quite low, his best method of escape is usually to go down quite close to the ground and fly back on a zigzag course.

Although as a principle single-seaters should not act alone, yet in many cases isolated scouts will be called upon to fight single-handed, e.g. when a formation has become split up during combat and a machine fails to rejoin its formation. Again, select pilots on the fastest types of single-seaters may be usefully employed on a roving commission, which will enable them to make the greatest use of surprise tactics.

Single-seater fighting calls for much initiative, especially when a combat develops itself into individual fighting and the pilot has the opportunity of developing his own particular method of attack. Methods vary with the type of machines attacked, and may be conveniently discussed under two headings:

Single-seater against single-seater.
Single-seater against machines with one or more passengers.
Single Seater Against Single Seater

Single-seaters are best attacked from above and behind with a view to getting within point-blank range if not observed. Height enables the attacker to anticipate his enemy's movements more quickly and to guard himself from attack from behind by a sudden turn on the part of his opponent. It is therefore essential to have plenty of engine power in hand so as to keep the means of climbing above the enemy throughout the fight and thus retain the advantage of height whatever tactics he may pursue.

When attacking a hostile formation, one of their number, more often than not their leader, will sometimes fly out of the fight and climb his utmost with a view to getting above the attackers. The leader of the attacking formation should watch for this manoeuvre, and be ready to frustrate it by climbing himself. The knowledge that there is one enemy above not only nullifies the advantage in height but divides the attention of the attacking pilots just when it should be entirely concentrated on the machines they have severally selected to attack.

A hostile pilot who attempts to come up unawares from behind and below can usually be defeated by a quick climbing turn. He will often be taken by surprise and turn flat, offering a vulnerable target to attack from above.

Attacks from directly in front or from the flanks are often successful, as the vital parts of the machine from the pilot forward are fully exposed.. Aim should be taken at the front of the machine in such an attack. It is a common mistake to aim at the pilot, which usually only results in hitting the fuselage, as the majority of the fire usually takes effect behind the point of aim. This is conclusively proved by the number of our machines which return with the fuselage riddled and little or no damage from the pilot forward.

Similarly, when attacking from above and behind, aim should be taken at the leading edge of the top plane, thus increasing the chance of hitting the engine and pilot.

When it is necessary to swerve to avoid a collision or to break off the combat temporarily to change a drum or rectify a jamb, this should be done by a sudden turn or climb, care being taken subsequently to avoid flying straight or losing height. When ready a favourable position must be regained by manoeuvre before renewing attack.

Single Seater Against Machines With One Or More Passengers

Single-seaters attacking two-seaters can do so from behind and above, from behind and below, or from front and flanks. The most favourable method is perhaps to attack from behind and below attempting to achieve surprise by climbing up under the fuselage and tail plane, the blindest spot from the point of view of the observer. A skilfully handled single-seater which can obtain a position about 100 yards behind and 50 feet below a hostile two-seater without being observed, is in a position to do most damage to the enemy with least risk to himself. Once in this position the object of the attacker must be to keep out of the enemy's field of fire as much as possible. The two-seater will endeavour to bring fire to bear on the attacker by turning quickly in order to deprive him of the cover of the fuselage and great skill is required to retain a position directly in rear in spite of frequent turns.

If enjoying superior speed, which will usually be the case, the single-seater should turn always in the opposite direction to the two-seater, e.g., if the two-seater turns to the right, the attacker at once turns to the left, thus preserving their relative positions. When on the bank in the act of turning, the two-seater will offer a favourable target to the attacker if the latter is quick enough to take the advantage. A short quick burst at this moment may confuse the pilot and cause him to dive, in which position it will be very difficult for the observer to do any accurate shooting, or even to stand up to fire, owing to the wind pressure, and it is safe to disregard the rear gun for the time being. Should the observer be put out of action the rear gun can, of course, be disregarded altogether and the attacker can close to point blank range.

When attacking two-seaters from above a short steep dive is effective, because the gunner has then to shoot almost vertically upwards, which is difficult and impairs the accuracy of his aim. To dive behind and above otherwise than steeply, on the other hand, is to afford the hostile observer a particularly easy shot. If approaching head on with a view to turning and attacking from behind, the turn must be made before a position vertically over the opponent is reached, otherwise the attacker will be left two or three hundred yards behind the hostile machine with no chance of surprise and not in a very favourable position for attack. An attack from the front and above or from the flanks precludes the use of the observer's gun altogether in many types of machines, but care must taken not to give the observer an easy shot by diving straight on past the machine after delivering the attack.

Surprise can often be obtained by carefully watching the adversary, preferably from behind. An especially favourable opportunity for surprise occurs in the case of a hostile machine crossing our front on some special mission, for once the hostile observer has satisfied himself that the air is clear, he will give his principal attention to his work. The enemy will often choose cloudy weather for such missions and this gives special chances of surprise to a skilful pilot, working with intelligence. In such weather it must be remembered that it is often of advantage to approach the hostile machine on his own level when the planes form but a thin line which is difficult to see.

When surprise is impossible, advantage must be taken of the handiness and manoeuvring power of the scout to prevent the enemy from taking careful aim by approaching him in a zigzag course, and never in a straight line, since a machine attacking in a straight line offers a comparatively easy target. When within about 100 yards the zigzag course must be abandoned, and the moment when the enemy is in the act of shifting his aim should, if possible, be chosen. He can then be attacked in a straight line with a burst of rapid fire, or it may be possible to get below him and fire at him more or less vertically at almost point-blank range.

To open fire at long range is to give the advantage to the enemy, since it is necessary to fly straight to bring fire to bear, and an easy mark is thus offered.

In the case of a group of three attacking a single two-seater, as in that of single-seaters, one machine must remain as an 'Above Guard'. The other two will have a very good chance of surprise if one machine repeatedly makes short dives firing a few rounds and climbing again. This will engage the attention of the observer and afford the second machine an opportunity of creeping up underneath the enemy to point-blank range.

In the attack of multi-seater machines, surprise is even more essential to success, since they usually have a gun on a circular mounting both in front and rear, and consequently have practically no blind spot. Some types have also a gun mounted to fire downwards at an angle through the fuselage in order to deal with attack from behind and below.

15: TWO SEATER FIGHTING

The principles of fighting in two-seaters designed for the purpose are similar to the above, but in the actual combat they are able to rely more on their power of all round fire and less on quickness of manoeuvre. The fighting tactics adopted should, therefore, be such as to favour the development of fire. The single-seater, when no longer able to approach its adversary, temporarily loses all power of offence and has to manoeuvre to regain a favourable position. The two-seater, on the other hand, can develop fire from its rear gun after passing its adversary or on the turn. The gun or guns firing straight ahead must be looked on as the principal weapons, the fire of the observer being brought to bear after passing the adversary, on a turn or against another machine attacking him from the rear.

A two-seater like a single-seater must, however, never dive straight away from an adversary, as even though it can fire to the rear the advantage is all with the machine which is following.

Formations of two-seaters are less liable to surprise from the rear, since the observers of the rear machines can face in that direction and keep a constant look-out. Mutual fire support is also easier in their case, in view of their all-round fire. They are, therefore, as already pointed out, better able to sustain a protracted battle.

The essence of successful fighting in two-seaters lies in the closest co-operation between pilot and observer. They must study their fighting tactics together, and each must know what the other will do in every possible situation.

The tactics of an artillery or bombing machine should be more defensive in their nature since their primary work is not to fight but to fulfil their mission. Machines of these types are also usually at a considerable disadvantage as regards quickness of manoeuvre. They should therefore be fought in such a way as to give the observer every chance of bringing effective fire to bear, and the front gun should be retained for use when opportunity offers, such as when a hostile machine, attacking from

16: FIRE TACTICS

Opportunities in the air are almost invariably fleeting, and consequently the most must be made of them when they occur. Fire should therefore, be reserved until a really favourable target is presented, and should then be in rapid bursts. Fire should only be opened at ranges of over 300 yards when the object is to prevent hostile machines coming to close quarters, as in the case of an escort to a reconnaissance machine, and should not be opened at ranges over 500 yards under any circumstances. In offensive fighting the longer fire can be reserved and the shorter the range, the greater the probability of decisive result.

For an observer on a two-seater machine, however, a range of from 200 to 300 yards is suitable, since it enables full advantage to be taken of the sight, Fire may be opened at longer range when meeting a hostile machine than when overhauling it, otherwise there will be no time to get in more than a very few rounds owing to the speed with which the machines are approaching one another. Pilots and observers must accustom themselves to judging the range by the apparent size of the hostile aeroplane and the clearness with which its detail can be seen. This needs constant practice.

A reserve of ammunition should be kept for the return journey when fighting far over the line.

Manoeuvre is an integral part of fire tactics, and every endeavour must be made to manoeuvre in such a way as to create favourable opportunities for one's own fire and deny such opportunities to the enemy.
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