GENERAL

The uses of aeroplanes in war in co-operation with other arms are many, but the efficient performance of their missions in every case depends on their ability to gain and maintain a position from which they can see the enemy's dispositions and movements. Cavalry on the ground have to fight and defeat the enemy's cavalry before they can gain information, and in the same way aerial fighting is usually necessary to enable aeroplanes to perform their other duties.

Artillery co-operation, photography and similar work can only be successful if the enemy are prevented as far as possible from interfering with the machines engaged on these duties, and such work by hostile machines can only be prevented by interference on our part.

The moral effect of a successful cavalry action is very great; equally so is that of successful fighting in the air. This is due to the fact that in many cases the combat is actually seen from the ground, while the results of successful fighting, even when not visible, are apparent to all. The moral effect produced by an aeroplane is also out of all proportion to the material damage which it can inflict, which is considerable, and the mere presence of a hostile machine over them inspires those on the ground with exaggerated forebodings of what it is capable of doing. On the other hand the moral effect on our own troops of aerial ascendancy is most marked, and the sight of numbers of our machines continually at work over the enemy has as good an effect as the presence of hostile machines above has bad.

2: SIMILARITY TO FIGHTING ON LAND AND SEA

To seek out and destroy the enemy's forces must therefore be the guiding principle of our tactics in the air, just as it is on land and at sea. The battle ground must be of our own choosing and not of the enemy's and for victory in the fight to be complete, must bring other important results in its train. These results can only be achieved by gaining and keeping the ascendancy in the air. The more complete the ascendancy, the more far-reaching will be the results.

The struggle for superiority takes the form, as in other fighting, of a series of combats, and it is by the moral and material effect of success in each combat that ascendancy over the enemy is gained

3: NECESSITY OF OFFENSIVE ACTION

Offensive tactics are essential in aerial fighting for the following reasons

1.To gain the ascendancy alluded to above. (In section 2)

2.Because the field of action of aeroplanes is over and in rear of the hostile forces, and we must, therefore, attack in order to enable our machines to accomplish their missions, and prevent those of the enemy from accomplishing theirs.

3.Because the aeroplane is essentially a weapon of attack and not defence. Fighting on land and sea, except for the submarine, takes place in two dimensions, but in the air we have to reckon with all three. Manoeuvring room is, therefore, unlimited, and no number of aeroplanes acting on the defensive will necessarily prevent a determined pilot from reaching his objective. The power enjoyed by the submarine Of movement in three dimensions, limited though it is, has to a large extent revolutionalized naval warfare.

4: CHOICE OF OBJECTIVES

An aerial offensive is conducted by means of :

(i) Offensive patrols.
(ii) The attack with bombs and machine-gun fire of the enemy's troops, transport, billets, railway stations, rolling stock and moving trains, ammunition dumps etc. on the immediate front in connection with operations on the ground.
(iii) Similar attacks on centres of military importance at a distance from the battle front or in the enemy's country with a view to inflicting material damage and delay on his production and transport of war material and of lowering the moral of his industrial population.

(i) OFFENSIVE PATROLS

The sole purpose of offensive patrols is to find and defeat the enemy's aeroplanes. Their normal sphere of action extends for some 20 miles behind the hostile battle line, and the further back they can engage the enemy's fighting aeroplanes the more immunity will they secure for our machines doing artillery work, photography and close reconnaissance. Since, however, aerial ascendancy will usually be relative only, and seldom absolute, patrols are also required closer in to attack those of his fighting machines which elude the outer patrols, and to deal with his machines doing artillery observation and similar work.

Fighting may take place at any height up to the limit to which the machine can ascend, know as its "ceiling". Artillery observation imposes a limit of some 10,000 feet, but fighting, bombing and photographic machines may fly at any height up to 20,000 feet or even more. Offensive patrols must therefore work echelloned in height (see Section 10).

(ii) ATTACK OF GROUND TARGETS IN THE BATTLE ZONE WITH BOMBS AND MACHINE-GUN FIRE

The attack of ground targets cannot strictly speaking be described as fighting in the air, but it is an integral part of the aerial offensive designed to weaken the moral of the enemy's troops and cause them material damage. It is carried out by fast single-seater machines flying normally at anything from 100-2,000 feet either singly or in formation. Fixed targets and, to a certain extent, troops can be attacked with advantage at any time including periods of sedentary warfare, but the attack of moving targets such as troops and transport is of the greatest value in connection with ground operations either offensive or defensive.

(iii) ATTACK OF GROUND TARGETS AT A DISTANCE

Targets at a distance are usually attacked by bombing. Such raids may be expected to produce their maximum effect when undertaken against distant objectives since they may cause the enemy to withdraw artillery and aeroplanes from the front for the protection of the locality attacked. They are also, however, of great use in rear of the immediate front in connection with operations on the ground.

Every parol or raid should, therefore, be sent out with a definate mission, the successful performance of which will not only help us to gain aerial ascendancy by the detruction of hostile aircraft, but will also either tend to induce the enemy to act on the defensive in the air, or further the course of operations on the ground.

5: TYPES OF FIGHTING MACHINES

The machines at present in use for offensive purposes may be divided into four main classes:

(i) Fighters (a)single seater (b)two seater
(ii) Fighter reconnaissance
(iii) Bombers
(iv) Machines for attacking ground targets from a low altitude

(i) Fighters

(a) Single seaters are fast, easy to manoeuvre, good climbers and capable of diving steeply on an adversary from a height.

Their armament consists of two or more machine or Lewis guns, whose axis of fire is directed forward and, usually in a fixed position in relation to the path of the machine.

Single seater fighters are essentially adapted for offensive action and surprise. In defence they are dependent on their handiness, speed and power of manoeuvre. They have no advantage over a hostile single seater as regards armament, and are at a disadvantage in this respect when opposed to a two seater, and therefore, the moment they cease to attack are in a position of inferiority, and must break off the combat, temporarily ay any rate, until they have regained a favouable position. On the other hand, provided they are superior in speed and climb to their adversary, they can attack superior numbers with impunity since they can break off the combat at will in case of necessity.

(b) Two seater fighters have, in addition, a machine gun for the observer, on a mounting designed to give as wide an arc of fire as possible, especially to the flanks and rear. Their front gun or guns remain, however, their principle armament.

The two seater is superior in armament to the single seater, since it is capable of all-round fire, but is generally somewhat inferior in speed, climb and power of manoeuvre. It has greater powers of sustaining a prolonged combat, being less vulnerable to attacks from flanks and rear, but as in the case of single seaters its chief strength lies in attack.

When fighting defensively or when surprised in an unfavourable position, it is often best for the pilot to fly his machine in such a way as to enable the observer to make the fullest use of his gun, while awaiting a good opportunity to regain the initiative.

(ii) Fighter Reconnaissance Machines

The first duty of these machines is to gain information. They do not go out with intent to fight, but must be capable of doing so since fighting will often be necessary to enable the required information to be obtained . Those at present in use are two seaters, the pilot flying the machine and the observer carrying out the reconnaissance. They approximate to the two seater fighter type and in the case of missions which can be carried out at 15,000 feet or upwards, are capable of acting alone, and usually do so.

(iii) Bombing Machines

Bombing machines usually carry at least one passenger so that they can, in case of necessity, undertake their own protection, even when loaded. Their requirements, as regards armament, are similar to those of fighter reconnaissance machines. Machines carrying more than one passenger usually have a gunner both fore and aft and are strong for defensive fighting. The greater weight of bombs they can carry the better.

(iv) Machines For Attacking Ground Targets

Machines for this purpose will, as a rule, be single seaters. Climb is of relatively minor importance, but they require to be fast and very manoeuvrable and must have a good view downwards. Single seater fighters can be used for this work, but it is probable that a special type of machine will be evolved in which the pilots and some of the most vulnerable parts will be protected by armour. They will probably be adapted for carrying a few light bombs.

PRINCIPLES OF AERIAL FIGHTING

6: FACTORS OF SUCCESS

The success of offensive tactics in the air depends on exactly the same factors as on land and sea. The principal of these are:

(i) Surprise
(ii) The Power Of Manoeuvre
(iii) Effective Use Of Weapons

Surprise

Surprise has always been one of the most potent factors of success in the war, and although it might at first appear that surprise is not possible in the air, in reality this is by no means the case. It must be remembered that the aeroplane is working in three dimensions, that the pilot's view must always be more or less obstructed by the wings and body of his machine, and that consequently it is often an easy matter for a single machine, or even two or three machines, to approach unseen, especially if between the hostile aeroplane and the sun. Fighting by single machine is however, rapidly becoming the exception (see paragraph 10), and surprise is more difficult of attainment by machines flying in formation, though by no means impossible.

Even when in view surprise is possible to a pilot who is thoroughly at home in the air, and can place his machine by a steep dive, a sharp turn, or the like, in an unexpected position on the enemy's blind side or under his tail.

A surprise attack is much more demoralizing than any other form of attack and often results in the pilot attacked diving straight away, or putting his machine into such a position, that it forms an almost stationary position for a few seconds, and thus in either case affords the assailant an easy shot. To achieve surprise it is necessary to see the enemy before he sees you. To see other machines in the air sounds an easy matter, but, in reality, it is very difficult and necessitates careful training. The ground observer is guided by the noise of the engine, but the pilot, of course, hears no engine but his own. Again, while the ground observer sees the machine, broadly speaking, in plan, the pilot sees it in elevation, presenting a much smaller surface. Add to these the variety of backgrounds, clear or cloudy sky or the chequered appearance of the ground from above, and the obstruction offered to the pilot's view by the wings and fuselage of his machine and the difficulties will begin to be realised.

Every pilot must, therefore, be trained to search the sky, when flying, in a methodical manner. A useful method is as follows: divide the sky into three sectors by means of the top plane and centre section struts, and sweep each sector very carefully. From port wing tip to centre section search straight ahead and then do the same from centre section to starboard wing tip. From starboard wing tip take a steady sweep straight upwards to port wing tip. In addition it is essential to keep a good lookout to the rear, both above and below the tail, in order to avoid being surprised. This can be done by swinging from side to side occasionally. The results of a concentrated search of this description are surprising, while a pilot who just sweeps the sky at random will see little or nothing.

In addition to seeing the hostile machine it is necessary to recognise it as such. A close study of silhouettes will assist pilots to do this, but until thoroughly experienced it is a safe rule to treat every machine as hostile. This, of course, necessitates going close enough to make sure, and soon results in a pilot becoming familiar with all types of machines in the air.

The types of hostile aeroplanes must be carefully studied, so that the performance and tactics of each, its blind side, and the best way to attack it, can be worked out. Some machines have a machine-gun mounted to fire downwards and backwards through the bottom of the fuselage.

Every advantage must be taken of the natural conditions such as clouds, sun, and haze, in order to achieve a surprise.

If observed when attempting a surprise it is often best to turn away in the hope of disguising the fact that an attack is meditated. Flat turns may cause the enemy to lose sight of a machine even after he has once spotted it, as they expose much less surface to his view than do ordinary banking turns.

Power of manoeuvre

Individual skill in manoeuvre favours surprise as pointed out above. Individual and collective power of manoeuvre are essential if flying in formation is to be successful or even possible. This can only be obtained by constant practice.

To take full advantage of manoeuvre the highest degree of skill in flying and controlling the machine is of the first importance. A pilot who has full confidence in his own powers can put the machine into any position suitable to the need of the moment, well knowing that he can regain control whenever he wishes. The best way to gain the required confidence is for the instructor to take the pupil up, dual-control, throw the machine out of control himself and allow the pupil to right it, the instructor only retaking control should the pupil fail to regain it. Once confidence has been acquired practice will make perfect.

The second essential is that the pilot shall know his engine and how to get the best out of it, and thoroughly understand the use of his throttle. Many a chance is lost through pilots allowing their engine to choke in a dive, and no pilot can really become first-class unless he acquires complete practical familiarity with his engine by constant study and practice.

Good formation flying can only be carried out by pilots who know how to use their throttle. The leader must always fly throttle down or his formation will straggle while they in their turn must make constant use of their throttle to maintain station and twist, turn and wheel without confusion or loss of distance.

Other points to which attention must be paid are the following: pilots must know the fuel capacity of their machine and its speed at all heights. The best height at which to fight varies with each type of aeroplane. Each pilot must know this height so that he can make the very best use of his machine. As a general rule machines should patrol at a greater altitude than their best fighting height. The direction and strength of the wind must be studied before leaving the ground and during flight. This study is most important since wind limits the range of action, as machines when fighting are bound to drift down wind.

Knowledge of the ground and ability to read a map and use a compass are of extreme importance. When engaged in fighting it is impossible to watch the ground, and unless pilots acquire an eye for country by constant practice and thoroughly understand map-reading and the use of the compass they will always have difficulty in picking up their bearings after a combat. The sun when visible is a valuable guide to direction.

Effective use of Weapons

Machine and Lewis Guns

The essentials for successful fighting in the air are skill in handling the machine and a high degree of proficiency in the use of gun and sights. Of these two essentials, the second is of even more importance than the first. Many pilots who have not been exceptionally brilliant trick fliers, have had the greatest success as fighting pilots owing to their skill in the use of the guns and sights. The manipulation of the gun in the air, especially on single-gun machines, is a very much more difficult matter than on the ground. Changing drums, for instance, though simple on the ground, is by no means easy when flying.

Every pilot and observer who is called upon to use a machine gun must have such an intimate knowledge of its mechanism as to know instinctively what is wrong when a stoppage occurs, and, as far, as the type of machine allows, must be able to rectify defects while flying. This demands constant study and practice both on the ground and in the air.

It is absolutely essential that pilots and observers should know exactly how their guns are shooting, and they should be tried on a target at least once a day. With his gun out of action a pilot or observer is helpless either for offence or defence.

Aerial gunnery is complicated by the fact that both gun and target are moving at variable speeds and on variable courses. Consequently, however skilful the firer, he cannot hope to be dead on the target for more than a very few seconds at a time, and it is essential that hand, eye, and brain be trained to work together.

Accurate shooting on the ground from a fixed gun at a fixed target is the first step in training; subsequently constant practice on the ground both when stationary and when moving at fixed and moving targets is essential. Finally, every opportunity must be taken of practice in the air under the condition of a combat.

Except at point blank range, it is essential to use the sights if accurate fire is to be obtained, and constant practice is needed with the sights provided. The aim can be checked with absolutely accuracy by means of the gun camera, and combats in the air during which the camera is used are a most valuable form of training.

Tracer ammunition is of some assistance, but must be used in conjunction with the sights, and not in place of them. Not more than one bullet in three should be a tracer, otherwise the trace tends to become obscured. Too much reliance must not be placed on tracer ammunition at anything beyond short range. The principle should be to use the sights whenever possible at all ranges.

Inexperienced pilots are too apt to be content with diving and pointing their machine at the target and ignoring everything else. More noise and fright will not bring down an opponent; it is necessary to hit him in a vital spot. From the time a pilot starts to dive he should not have to fumble about for triggers and sights. His eye should fall automatically on the sight and his hand close on the trigger. By holding the right arm firmly against the body and working only from the elbow the machine can be held much steadier in a dive.

Bombs

Skill and accuracy in bombing in the same way can be only be acquired by continual practice and careful study of the conditions which govern the correct setting and use of bomb sights, such practice is best obtained by the use of the Batchelor Mirror or of the camera obscura, and must be carried out from varying altitudes up to 15,000 feet, from which height bombs will often have to be dropped from service.

An exception must be made in the case of bombing by single-seater fighting machines from a low altitude, a method of attack which has been employed with very considerable success. In this case no sight is used, and the method found by experience to give the best results is to dive the machine steeply at a point on the ground a few yards in front of the target. The lag of a bomb released from a few hundred feet on a steep dive is very little. Individual pilots must find out by experiment exactly how far ahead they must aim.

Go to Part II

Part II Contains the following:

• 7: EVOLUTION OF FORMATION FLYING
• 8: SOME PRINCIPLES OF FORMATION FLYING
• 9: USE OF FORMATION FLYING
• 10: OFFENSIVE PATROLS
• 11: RECONNAISSANCE AND BOMB RAIDS
• 12: ATTACK OF GROUND TARGETS
• 13: GENERAL FIGHTING TACTICS
• 14: SINGLE SEATER FIGHTING
• 15: TWO SEATER FIGHTING
• 16: FIRE TACTICS